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increases up to a certain point. If the angle of attack
becomes too great, airflow over the top of the airfoil tends
to lose its streamlined path and break away from the
contoured surface to form eddies (burbles) near the trail-
ing edge. When this happens, the airfoil loses its lift, and
it stalls. The angle of attack at which burbling takes place
is called the critical angle of attack.
(4)
Air Density. The density (thickness) of the air
plays an important part in the amount of lift an airfoil is
able to make. The air nearest the earths surface is much
denser than air at higher altitudes. Therefore, an aircraft
or helicopter can achieve more lift near the ground than
at a high altitude. While keeping at the same speed and
angle of attack, an airfoil will slowly make less lift as it
climbs higher and higher.
d.
Airfoil Stability.
(1)
Center of Pressure. The resultant lift pro-
duced by an airfoil is the difference between the drag and
lift pressures of its upper and lower surfaces. The point
on the airfoil chord line where the resultant lift is effective-
ly concentrated is called the center of pressure. The cen-
ter of pressure of a symmetrical airfoil remains in one
position at all angles of attack. When the angle of attack
of an unsymmetrical airfoil changes, the center of pres-
sure changes accordingly: the center of pressure moves
forward with an increase in angle of attack, and the cen-
ter of pressure moves backward with a decrease in angle
of attack.
(2)
Airfoil Aerodynamic Center. The aerody-
namic center of an airfoil is the point along the chord line
about which the airfoil tends to rotate when the center of
pressure moves forward or backward between the lead-
ing and trailing edges.
(3)
Torque. According to Newtons third law of
motion, for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. As a helicopter main rotor or an airplane propel-
ler turns in one direction, the aircraft fuselage tends to
rotate in the opposite direction. This effect is called
torque. Solutions must be found to counteract and con-
trol torque during flight. In helicopters torque is applied in
a horizontal rather than a vertical plane. The reaction is
therefore greater because the rotor is long and heavy
relative to the fuselage, and forward speed is not always
present to correct the twisting effect.
(4)
Gyroscopic Precession. If a force is applied
against a rotating body, the reaction will be about 90
from the point of application, in the direction of rotation.
This unusual fact is known as gyroscopic precession. It
pertains to all rotating bodies. For example, if you push
the 3--oclock point on a clockwise rotating wheel, the
wheel would move as if it had been pushed at the
6--oclock point. The rotors on helicopters act as gyro-
scopes and are therefore subject to the action of gyro-
scopic precession.
e.
Stress. Stress is a force placed on a body mea-
sured in terms of force (pounds) per unit area (square
inches). Aircraft design engineers design aircraft to
meet--even to exceed--strength requirements of military
service. Since Army aircraft are operated under combat
conditions, they might exceed these design limits. There-
fore, maintenance personnel must check constantly for
failures and for signs of approaching failure in aircraft
structural units. Stress may take the form of compres-
sion, torsion, tension, bending, or shear or may be a
combination of two or more of these forces (Figure 1-4):
D Compression is resistance to being pushed
together or crushed. Compression is produced
by two forces pushing toward each other in the
same straight line. The landing struts of an
aircraft are under compression after landing.
D Torsion is resistance to twisting. A torsional
forced is produced when an engine turns a
crankshaft. Torque is the force that produces
torsion.
D Tension is resistance to being pulled apart or
stretched. Tension is produced by two forces
pulling in opposite directions along the same
straight line. Pilots put the cables of a control
system under tension when they operate the
controls.
D Bending is a combination of tension and com-
pression. The inside curve of the bend is under
compression, and the outside curve is under
tension. Helicopter main rotor blades are sub-
jected to bending.
D Shear is the stress exerted when two pieces of
metal fastened together are separated by, sliding
one over the other in opposite directions. When
force is applied to two pieces of metal fastened
together by rivets or bolts, sliding them across
each other, the rivets or bolts are subjected to
shear. Stress will cut off the bolt or rivet like a pair
of shears. Generally, rivets are subjected to
shear only, but bolts may be stressed by shear
and tension. There is internal shear in all parts
being bent such as the skin of sheet metal struc-
tures.